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Navajo Sandpainting:
Influencing Modern Art
Over the years, deeply rooted Indian traditions
seldom change. During the expansion of the American frontier in
the 1800's, the resistance of Indians to move to reservations
resulted in European rivalry against Indian belief and culture.
One might expect that because of poor Indian-European relations,
Indian culture might be suppressed in contemporary society.
Ironically though, some Indian influence has remained.
Sandpainting, a religious, ceremonial art form made popular by the
Navajo tribe, has survived the opposition and its influences can
be noticed in today's culture. Navajo sandpainting, part of an
important sacred religious Indian tradition for many years, has
surfaced in the modern world as an influence to secular art forms.
Beginning with the Pueblos, spreading through southern California
tribes, the Apaches, and finally remaining with the Navajos,
sandpainting was a spirited art form. Sandpainting featured
personified beings, animals and plants, while individually
focusing on a specific cause or specific powers. Nancy Parezo, a
long-time investigator of Indian arts and crafts, describes the
art form as a "visual mythical statement and mnemonic
device" ("Drypainting" 170). She talks about the
Indian word for sandpainting, "iikáah," which means
"the place where the gods come and go," and references a
finished piece as a temporary altar that attracts holy people
("Drypainting" 170). Considered cherished, beautiful,
and therefore living when blessed, sandpaintings are a
"membrane through which the holiness and goodness of the Holy
People can be transferred with the illness of a patient" (Parezo,
"Drypainting" 170-2). This art form is not paint applied
to canvas that is merely looked at when completed, as is usually
the case with modern art, but holds a deeper existence.
The materials and methods used to create sandpaintings, as well as
the reasons for their creation, make them unique. The paintings,
usually created from natural colored sand, cornmeal, flowers and
corn pollen, or powered roots and bark (see Figure 1), cured the
ill ("Sand" 56). Used only under the supervision of
trained, religious specialists and almost exclusively during
ceremonies, sandpaintings had to be prescribed and were quite
complex. To work correctly, sandpaintings had to be perfect (Parezo,
"Drypainting" 172). The chanter or singer would sprinkle
materials on the ground in forms of sacred symbols and
supernatural beings. After the ceremony, the creation, full of
sickness, was destroyed. The power generated by the art would
cause harm to those who encountered it and consequently for many
years remained non-permanent ("Sand" 56).
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Figure 1: Sandpainting of Saint
Anthony of Padua with the Christ Child, made on floor of
Capilla Real in Mexico. Scanned from Wyman 89. |
Indian art though, because of the desires of
Anglo-Americans, began to appear in the form of blankets early in
the 1900's. Anglo-Americans felt that the more color or greater
complexity in a design translated into greater worth (Baer 584).
Visitors into Indian Territory wished to return home with
something that reflected the culture they saw on their journey.
Blankets that depicted birds, animals, native tales, and other
illustrations of the Wild West, had been in use for decades, but
now, semi-reproductions of sandpaintings began to show (Baer 586).
Unlike the horizontal striped or geometric patterns of before,
these depictions became increasingly popular and valuable as their
beauty increased (Baer 584). The white man bought "sandpainting"
blankets as souvenirs, while other Indian nations and Spanish
settlers used them as clothing (Baer 583).
The depictions though, were not actual reproductions, and many
Navajos disproved of their use for purposes other than in
traditional ceremonies. Leland C. Wyman, long-time researcher of
Navajo religion, discusses that the tardiness of sandpainting
designs opening in blankets were due, in part, to religion.
Navajos did not want permanence of these sacred objects (264).
Some fear of supernatural power was lifted as certain figure
modifications appeared. Wyman explains that as dealers began
creating fiction stories about the rarity of the blankets and
their similarities to ceremonial use, they increased in popularity
and therefore were sold at high prices (263). Charles Avery Amsden,
author of Navaho Weaving, explained: "for once the
aura of mystery is dispelled nothing will remain but an awkward
human figure in garish coloring, infinitely less attractive than
simple geometric patterns which are truly representative of Navaho
textile design" (qtd. in Wyman 263). In reality, Navajos
considered these "pseudosandpaintings" much as we would
consider a parody of the Bible. They were in poor religious taste
and even less attractive than the traditional geometric patterns
(Wyman 263). Author of Navajo Shepherd and Weaver, Gladys
A. Reichard argues: "The designs . . . are hideous attempts
at representation of the Navajo gods, ugly because false in every
respect" (qtd. in Wyman 263-4).
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Figure 2: Reproduction of Talking
God and Calling God with Sunflower by Franc J.
Newcomb. Scanned from Wyman 94. |
From blankets, various other permanent forms of
sandpainting reproductions or sandpainting figures emerged. Few
have the exact symbols used in actual sandpainting rituals though.
The creators of the reproductions had seldom seen an actual
sandpainting, or they too, feared the power it would contain
(Wyman 274). Wyman continues by saying many works of
"Navajos, who dared to defy the interdictions of the
supernaturals," (274) are displayed in museums. Some of these
works are actual sandpaintings, but the majority are crayon and
paper reproductions. Wyman talks of Franc Johnson Newcomb (see
Figure 2), widow of an Indian trader in New Mexico, who has
completed more sketch and watercolor reproductions of
sandpaintings than any other person. Her collection resides in the
Maxwell Museum of the University of New Mexico (273-4). Wyman also
mentions Migulito, an Indian who lived near a trading post in
Ganado, Arizona. Unlike other artists, he dared to be accurate in
his watercolors, but consequently, spent hours in prayer and
purification to overcome his sin (275). Sandpainting figures
appeared on silver jewelry as well. Parezo discussed
"Swastika" pendants that presumably resembled a certain
sandpainting called "Whirling Log." Traders began to ask
Navajos to use pattern although in reality it had no relationship
to the sandpainting. She also commented on snake rings and
bracelets that had their origin in sandpainting elements but were
much more detailed than in the actual art (Navajo 49). In
addition to jewelry, Parezo mentions sandpainting reproductions
used as wall decorations. The first, she says, came in southwest
hotels in order to provide a feel of the culture and bring the
scenic qualities of the region inside (51). More recently, public
places such as medical buildings, display sandpainting
reproductions quite appropriately, giving the curing abilities
they are believed to have. Parezo makes note though that Navajos
refused to work in these buildings until a "Blessingway
Ceremony" was held to counteract the negativity (52).
Not only have the visual aspects of sandpainting been seen in the
modern world, but the technique has come forth by contemporary
artist Jackson Pollack. Abandoning the traditional easel, Pollack
tacks his canvas on the hard floor. Relinquishing the use of
traditional tools, brushes, and palette knife, he uses sticks and
trowels to "drip" paint directly on the canvas (see
Figure 3) (Cernuschi 105). Pollack says he "feel[s] nearer,
more part of the painting. . . . This is akin to the method of
Indian sand painters of the West" (qtd. in Cernuschi 105).
Claude Cernuschi, observer and biographer of Pollack, comments
that although Pollack was influenced by surrealist automatism (the
suspension of the conscious mind) and an experience with a
Siqueiros experimental workshop, his major influence came from
Navajo sandpaintings (107). It is unknown whether Pollack actually
witnessed a real sandpainting but he did make numerous trips to
the West and observed a demo in the Museum of Modern Art (107).
Cernuschi says that visual similarity is unintentional and
actually, Pollack thinks the paintings look nothing alike. The
method, not the visual aspect, is the connection (108).
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Figure 3: Shimmering Substance
by Jackson Pollock located in the Museum of Modern Art,
New York. Reproduced from Cernuschi 104. |
As shown in Pollack's work, deviation in
tradition continues in the twentieth century. The permanent forms
are seen as a way to preserve the sacred Navajo designs in secular
art. Parezo gives some credit to technological advances in
adhesives, which have contributed to sandpainting purchasing on
the regional and international art markets, as art ("Drypainting"
172). Founders of this Navajo "minor" art form, Fred
Stevens, Jr., a Navajo singer, and Luther A. Douglas, an Anglo
artist, define these sandpaintings as permanent forms where
pulverized dry materials are glued onto sand-covered wood backing
(Parezo, "Drypainting" 172). Several million dollars
worth of sandpaintings were sold each year in the 1980's and
during that time, over 600 Navajos, both men and women, have been
or were painters (Parezo, "Drypainting" 172).
These artistic sandpaintings are no longer considered the same as
the sacred form. It is art in the western sense, to be sold to
non-Navajos. Parezo discusses that the secularization of the
sandpainting was a transformation by the singers and artists
themselves to make the piece "imperfect" ("Drypainting"
172). She states that "through simplification, elaboration,
transportation and several other symbolic artistic devices,"
("Drypainting" 172) the paintings do not call the Holy
People but are still recognized as Navajo. A few large, expensive,
fine art pieces that are full reproductions exist, but more common
is the small souvenir that simply provides an image of southwest
America. As the art form expands, Parezo notes that some non-sandpainting
themes such as landscapes, dancers, portraits, and still lifes,
have come into existence ("Drypainting" 172).
Even with the new freedoms that have come in the past century,
little has changed for the Navajos. Wyman observes the methods,
productions, designs, style, and use of Navajo sandpainting remain
the same as when the tradition began. He notes it will probably
remain unchanged in the future as well because younger Navajo
generations are interested in the tradition (252). As in the first
examples, which emerged early this century in rugs and tapestries,
Wyman says there are still restrictions for safety and
effectiveness, and the only relaxation has been in the constraints
of secular forms (252).
Although Navajo tradition continues, European influence once
weighed heavily on all aspects of Indian life, including art.
Positive influences such as iron and steel gave the sculptor more
precise design concepts and the engraver finer detail. Aniline
(synthetic organic) dye gave the weaver more attractive color that
would not fade. Gold and silver began to adorn prized materials.
But, late in the nineteenth century, the Westward movement of the
American frontier forced the removal of many Indians to the Great
Plains and Oklahoma. Fredrick J. Dockstader, museum consultant and
art historian, discusses that warfare and social demoralization
followed, which forced the Indian to forget about everything but
survival ("Art" 58). According to him: "With the
displacement of the Indian by the Westerner came the rejections of
his products, other than as a curiosities [sic] of a vanquished
people" ("Arts of Native"). After the Indian wars,
the flood of explorers and settlers caused change in Indian art;
new ideas, designs, and demands transformed to appeal to European
style. The customer was no longer the native resident neighbor,
but the person who knew little of traditional design and preferred
familiar motifs (Dockstader 58).
Just as Europeans influenced Indian culture, the culture itself
influenced the spread of sandpainting. Parezo states that the
Navajo community was never totally united against the productions
of permanent sandpainting (Navajo 63). At the same time
though, the chanters, who performed the sandpainting ceremony,
were concerned for the welfare of the community and the health of
their relatives (Navajo 71). The reasons Parezo gives, are
that the "paintings were being treated irreverently" and
the Navajos feared the supernatural effects that would
"disrupt harmonious relationships with deity" (Navajo
63). She discusses that the Navajos saw the sale of rugs as an
"illegitimate transfer of knowledge." They were walked
on and the holy pictures were made dirty (Navajo 65).
Navajos also feared that the uninformed might view the painting in
the wrong way.
"Indian art has always been subject to social and political
trends, and the vagaries of the always-fickle art world" (Dockstader
62). Navajo sandpaintings have been no exception. They have lasted
in the Navajo world for centuries as "ritual objects that
bring the past, present, and future into a single moment in order
to unite a patient with time in the universe"
("Sand" 56). Our contemporary, naïve world has reached
into the past and pulled from this mysterious art form. We can see
evidence of it in such common elements as blankets, jewelry, and
wall décor; the technique has inspired not only researchers of
the subject but modern artists as well. Indian art was practically
lost by the advancement of the American frontier. But then again,
it helped the Navajos overcome the opposition and fear that they
felt by allowing the paintings to take on a permanent form. The
Navajos maintain the sacred beliefs they have held for over two
centuries, and the secular art world enjoys just a
"hint" of their mystery. |
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Annotated Bibliography
Baer, Joshua. "Garments of Brightness: The
Art and History of the Navajo Eye Dazzler." Magazine
Antiques. Oct. 1991: 580-586. ProQuest: Periodical
Abstracts-Research II. CD-ROM. Jan. 1990 - Dec. 1991.---Baer
talks about Navajo weaving as a beautiful, valued "state of
harmony" since the nineteenth century. When Anglo-Americans
became the customers, different tastes resulted in different
designs. These valuable blankets could be traded for credit at
trading posts on reservations. As time progressed, synthetic dyes
and machine-spun yarn resulted in higher quality blankets that
took less time to weave, but maintained traditional
elements.
Cernuschi, Claude. Jackson Pollock: Meaning. New York:
Icon, 1992. 104-108.---Cernuschi talks about Pollock's poured
technique and its resemblance to Indian sandpainting. Pollock
"drips" paint directly on the canvas by abandoning the
traditional easel and tools. Visual similarity between the work
and that of Indians is unintentional as "the kinship
exists" only in the method.
Dockstader, Fredrick J. "Art." Native America in the
Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Mary B. Davis. New
York: Garland, 1994.---Dockstader argues that the displacement of
Indians by Europeans forced them to first look at survival, while
their art second. When the warfare and "social
demoralization" of the late nineteenth century ended, the
flood of settlers began to influence Indian art. A hundred years
later, as the interest grew, museums finally began to display
Indian art with other earthly craftwork. Basketry and pottery are
the main modern influence, although paintings or reproductions.
"Native American art can no longer be regarded solely as
ethnology . . . [but] as a major American aesthetic."
---. "Arts of Native American Peoples: Arts of the American
Indian Peoples in the Contemporary World." Encyclopædia
Britannica CD. CD-ROM. 1997 ed.---Dockstader argues that only
in the last few decades has there been an effort to develop
appreciation for Native American art. The most active efforts have
been in the United States, through publications, exhibitions and
the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. With "years of
cultural denial," native artists can no longer look towards
their heritage for art but must adjust with Western motifs.
Parezo, Nancy J. "Drypainting." Native America in the
Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Mary B. Davis. New
York: Garland, 1994.---Parezo talks about drypaintings as
"ephemeral paintings" created from dry powdered
materials used in healing or teaching, made popular by the
Navajos. Considered "Gifts of the Holy People," these
powerful paintings were treated with respect. Modern, artistic
sandpaintings, although derived from the original form, are not
considered the same thing, but as art in the Western sense.
---. Navajo Sandpainting: From Religious Act to Commercial Art.
Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1983.---Parezo traces the
growth of permanent sandpaintings from their sacred model, and
talks about their creation, the consequences of their development,
and those involved in the development. Permanent sandpainting
development was a difficult process that came as result of Navajos
who were trying to preserve culture and traders who were trying to
expand the Navajo market. Some Navajos were upset when
sandpaintings were taken from their ceremonial link, but by the
late 1970's many recognized the secular form. A rationalization
process saw a way to distinguish between the two styles by
removing elements from the secular form that would prevent the
Holy People from coming. Parezo talks about the reasons Navajos
sandpaint, which in most cases were either for economic or
cultural reasons and the fact that sandpaintings are a luxury in
the international ethnic art market.
"Sand Painting." Encyclopedia of North American
Indians. Ed. Frederick E. Hoxie. Boston: Houghton Miflin,
1996.---Discusses that sand painting is a spiritual art form made
of natural colored sand sprinkled into sacred symbols. They are
used to "unite a patient with time in the universe," and
traditionally are erased after the ceremony. Contemporary interest
has led to decorative modifications in modern art.
Wyman, Leland C. Southwest Indian Drypainting. Ed. Douglas
W. Schwartz. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983.
Parts I & III. --Wyman talks about Navajo drypaintings,
assumed to be derived from the Pueblo, as sacred, powerful, and
temporary devices in religious ceremonies performed by trained
experts. The symbols in drypainting can be human protagonists,
domesticated plants, animals, or elements that provide an exchange
of good and evil. Drypaintings are considered "illustrations
to a book of Navajo mythology." Wyman discusses forms of
drypainting outside the Navajo tribe and in secular tenses as
tapestries and other miscellaneous reproductions. |
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